Davis (The Royal Numismatic Society, London, 2020), p.195 Van Wersch, in Early Medieval Tesserae in Northwestern Europe. Alessandri (Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2020), p.189 Santopadre, in The Restoration of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem. Wouters, in Early Medieval Tesserae in Northwestern Europe. Miyata, Conservation of Monuments in the Mediterranean Basin, ed. Moropoulou, in Nondestructive Evaluation and Monitoring Technologies, Documentation, Diagnosis and Preservation of Cultural Heritage. Entwistle (The British Museum Press, London, 2013), p.76 Schibille, Islamic Glass in the Making (University Press, Leuven, 2022)Ī. Nardi (The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 2017), p. Sasaki, in Conservation and Presentation of Mosaics, ed. Teteriatnikov, Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., 1998) Kostenec, Hagia Sophia in Context (Oxbow Books, Oxford, 2019) Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, 2004), p.123Ī. Verità, in Conservation of the Last Judgment Mosaic. Choudhury, Principles of colour appearance and measurement 1 (Woodhead Publishing, 2014) Ivanovici, in Colour and Light in Ancient and Medieval Art, ed. Entwistle (The British Museum Press, London, 2013), p.217 Connor, Saints and Spectacle (Oxford University Press, 2016) James, Mosaics in the Medieval World (University Press, Cambridge, 2017) We observe for the Byzantine period the use of a Byzantine gold and of gold supposedly from different stages of recycling, and we suggest the use of Umayyad and Abbasid gold for the production of Islamic tesserae. Although trace element composition of gold used in the concerned period is only available for coins, by comparing the amounts of Pt contained in the tesserae and in the coins we show that Roman tesserae are made from Roman gold, as described in the documentary sources. However, these alloys are identical to those used to make gold leaf for gilding, because plastic deformation requires the use of gold alloys with high ductility and malleability. Data obtained by double-dispersive XRF (D 2XRF) and µXRF for fourth–ninth-century mosaics decorating nine Eastern and Western religious buildings show that the Eastern and Western tesserae are made from different alloys. As Pt and Au have adjacent fluorescence energies, we tested the most challenging situation, when Pt is present in very low concentrations in gold. Using this protocol, trace element analysis is achieved with detection limits of 1–6 mg/kg. To gain insight into the possible origin of the gold used in the production of tesserae containing gold leaf less than 0.5 µm thick placed between two layers of glass, we propose a non-destructive synchrotron radiation (SR) XRF protocol based on sequential analysis under optimised analytical conditions.
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